New Developments For Special Educators And Students With Disabilities - ebookschoice.com

An increasing number of students require specialized health care procedures during school hours. Procedures such as tube feedings, clean intermittent catheterization, suctioning, and ventilator management are becoming more commonplace in the school setting. Who performs the procedures and is responsible for them being correctly implemented varies across school districts and states. Although consensus can be difficult to reach regarding other critical areas surrounding specialized health care procedures. Two critical areas have been identified and are as follows:

 

First and foremost, all teachers need to maintain a safe, healthy environment for their students in collaboration with others in the school. This includes learning about their students' specific physical and/or health impairments, physical health care procedures, and treatment regime. A teacher should know the major problems and emergencies that could arise with each student. There should be a plan in place to know how to respond should a problem occur. Teachers should also know general safety skills such as universal precautions, general first aid, and CPR.

Second, specialized health care procedures should be viewed as independent living skills, which students should be taught. Specialized health care procedures and other health management skills should be considered for goals and objectives. These objectives could target independent performance, partial participation, directing someone else in performance, or knowledge of the task. It is the educational team's responsibility to consider how students can participate in their own self-care.

 

The plan for and establishment of instruction in the area of self-management skill development must include input from appropriate health care specialists, such as nurses, OTs, and PTs. Teachers of students with physical and health disabilities are responsible for providing expertise in the area of instructional strategies and adaptations to promote student learning of these procedures. Even when health care personnel are responsible for performing these procedures, teachers must work closely with them, providing appropriate instructional strategies, error analysis, and correction procedures.

 

Society can steal the dreams of people with disabilities. It defines what people with disabilities are capable of, provides ready-made programs instead of letting these individuals choose their own path; holds low expectations for their achievement, giving praise for mediocre performance instead of expecting the best; and limits their experiences under the guise of protection or safety.

 

Dreams are the essence of a free society, the privilege to dream and the freedom to make that dream come true. This is true for all people.

 

Discipline/Violence

 

Preventing violence and discipline problems in our schools calls for comprehensive, school-wide programs, specialized interventions for students who need additional help, and educators who make an effort to connect with each of their students. Specific guidelines follow.

 

Instituting School-wide Behavioral Supports

 

-    Develop a team-based approach to using and evaluating best practices. The teams should include an administrator, grade level or department representation, individuals with expertise on behavioral strategies and issues such as psychologists and other support staff, and a parent. The administrator must actively support the staff by providing budget, additional staff, and resources.

 

-    Adapt and sustain research-validated practices

 

-    Make behavioral instruction proactive. Educators should give direct instruction in appropriate social behavior, model appropriate the behavior, give students opportunities to practice the behavior and become fluent at it, and give positive feedback.

 

-    Provide a continuum of instructional behavior support. The intensity of intervention must increase as the intensity of problem behavior increases. Schools can't throw simple solutions against complex problems, such as using parent volunteers to manage students who are chronic behavior challenges. Schools should use individuals who know the strategies to address those problems.

 

-    Use data-systems to guide decision making. These systems should inform staff as to what is currently in place, as well as what is and is not working. The data should be applied to the school's goals for its students.

 

The Surprise Killers

 

We learn about students who have a hidden potential for violence and suicide and we stressed the need for educators to be aware of "quiet," anti-social students who suddenly erupt, killing themselves and/or others.

 

These unidentified students have often experienced a high degree of rejection. They become such non-entities, their teachers and peers, and even family members, do not know them. To fend off their alienation, they may join a deviant peer group such as the "trench coat mafia" referred to in the Columbine High School deaths.

 

To help such students we recommend that educators make it a point to support the rejected student and establish credibility with him or her. Strategies to do so include greeting each student respectfully; treating each student with respect and dignity even when there is a classroom disturbance; and providing relevant instructional materials that is age appropriate, well-paced, and at an appropriate academic level.

Educators should pay attention to any feelings of unease they may experience with a student. In such instances, the educator should refer the student for evaluation and seek help from other professionals.

 

Assessment

 

States have been struggling to enact the mandate that they must include and report the scores of students with disabilities in state- and district-wide assessments. While only some states know how many students with special needs are included in broad-based assessments, others have the information but lag behind in analyzing it. However, with the data available, we know that the number of students included in assessments vary greatly, ranging from one state that includes all students with disabilities to a state that includes only 14% of such students in assessments. States also report differences in how the scores for students with disabilities are used. Most use the scores for state-wide policy decisions and to target low-performing schools for additional funding. They are also used to guide decisions about curriculum or instruction, general school reforms, and individual student issues, such as graduation or promotion.

 

One assessment quandary special educators are trying to navigate is high stakes testing. Currently, some states use exit exams, which students must pass to graduate, and many more are planning to institute such exams. While some special educators fear students with disabilities will fail exit exams and be unable to graduate, others warn that high stakes testing can be used as an excuse to exclude students with special needs from state-wide assessments. In addition, such tests may exacerbate the drop-out rate of students with disabilities.

 

Special educators are also worried that their students will be unable to meet state standards. However, if teachers and parents expect students with disabilities to live and work in their communities, we must be sure they have the skills and knowledge to do so. The key is to ensure our students get the resources they need to master the required subject matter. Another problem is that states and legislatures are looking to high stakes testing as a means to enact negative consequences for teachers and schools. Punishment is not an effective way to change behavior.

 

Overuse of accommodations is also a concern. Special educators may over-accommodate on state-wide assessments, thinking the accommodations "can't hurt." However, providing accommodations that aren't needed are antithetical to independence. Furthermore, students may not receive accommodations in the workplace, and those who don't need them shouldn't grow dependent on them.

 

Effective Treatments for ADHD

 

In general, a combined therapy using medication and behavior therapy or medication alone outperforms behavioral therapy in treating ADHD, but one must look at the child's characteristics to determine the best type of therapy for ADHD. The results of a national study comparing various treatments for ADHD are:

 

-    For children with anxiety and ADHD, a combined therapy worked best.

 

-  For children with aggressive/oppositional behavior and ADHD, a combined therapy or medication worked better than behavior therapy alone.

 

-    For children with ADHD or conduct disorder, behavior therapy only showed no gains.

 

Though the study shows that medication is effective for children with ADHD, many parents and educators are still reluctant to use it. As a result, children may receive lower dosages than they need to suppress their symptoms. Placing children on Ritalin or other medication for ADHD may lead to substance abuse.

 

Children get into substance abuse through delinquency. With proper medication, kids make it in the real world. To determine the best treatment for a child with ADHD, one must consider all factors, such as whether the child has anxiety or if there are circumstances occurring in the home that may affect the child. Each child with ADHD must receive an intensive evaluation and frequent monitoring to ensure the most appropriate treatment.

 

Reading

 

While we have made great strides in learning how to teach children to read, the battle is far from over. Researchers have identified methods that help the majority of young children learn to read, but we do not know how to prevent reading difficulties in all children. Another major problem is that we still do not know how to help non-readers master this essential skill once they have progressed beyond the third grade. This is problematic, for it is at the fourth grade that reading moves to expository writing, which gives students the information they need to master content. Non-readers also lose essential vocabulary acquisition, which is often correlated with intelligence.

 

To help ensure young students learn to read, schools must take a proactive approach, recommended reading experts. First, they must consistently deliver quality reading instruction in kindergarten through second grade. Torgesen recommends using phonemically explicit instructional approaches, as they have the strongest impact on reading growth. Second, schools must provide more intensive, explicit, and supportive instruction for children who are at risk of reading difficulty. Third, schools should employ an assessment system that gives educators feedback on each child's mastery of the basic reading skills, such as alphabetic understanding, phonological awareness, and fluency, on a weekly or monthly basis. We can't wait until the end of the year to decide if kids are making progress.

 

Providing Access to the General Education Curriculum

 

Giving students with disabilities access to the general education curriculum entails major shifts in the way teachers approach instruction. First, both general and special education teachers need to be able to communicate and work effectively with other professionals. Second, they must share decision-making on assessment and instruction. And third, they must employ more flexible teaching approaches, including who will teach what, where the instruction will occur, and how the students will be grouped both in and out of class.

 

Educators may also need to base instructional units on the content their students should master. This structure will influence the way teachers group children and gather feedback, as well as the instructional approaches they will use.

 

Finally, educators must monitor students' progress in the general education curriculum. Continuous flat profiles in critical target areas is not acceptable.

 

Accommodations/Modifications

 

Educators should provide a continuum of accommodations that allow students with disabilities to access the general education curriculum. While accommodations involve changing the way content is delivered, sequencing of material, or timelines for mastery, they still allow students to work toward the content established in state standards.

Special educators should be leery of making modifications, which change the knowledge and skills a student is expected to master. When making even simple modifications, we can take him or her "out of the loop" for success on state - and district-wide assessments.

 

Special Education Law and You

 

-    Evaluations: Decisions concerning a child's disability and educational program must be based on a number of assessments, including informal teacher assessments and observations, as well as input from parents. Educators should also be able to articulate the educational basis or rationale for a decision.

 

-    Educational Methodology: The courts have stated that they will not resolve disputes on educational methods. The courts recognize that there are many different ways to teach a child with a disability.

 

-    The emphasis on students with disabilities participating in the general education curriculum should not result in major expansions or in detailed goals, benchmarks, or objectives in every content area. The new focus should result in attention to accommodations that allow students to participate in the general education curriculum.

 

Discipline

 

-    Manifestation Determination — A school can decide a child's behavior was not a manifestation of the child's disability and the child's disability did not impair his or her ability to understand the impact, consequences, and ability to control behavior. To show that a child understands the impact and consequences of his or her actions, educators can use anecdotal stories of their daily interactions with the child.

 

While the school cannot decide whether or not the student's behavior was a manifestation of his or her disability without the parents' presence, the school can meet to discuss the issue. In fact, it's often a good idea to give staff a time to vent behind closed doors.

 

-    Behavioral Assessments — A behavioral assessment would not require parental consent if it is a review of existing data. If the behavioral assessment involves formal evaluations or psychological or other assessments and procedures, the school should get parental consent.

 

-    Continuing Educational Services — If a child is removed from the educational environment for more than 10 days, school personnel and the special education teacher determine what services the child will receive. That could mean that homework would be sent home.

 

-    Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) — LRE is being applied to pre-school children, and districts must ensure that a continuum of services is provided to this population. LRE is also being considered for the extended school year, which is based on the child's potential for regression, the rate of recoupment, or other factors such as the child being on the brink of a breakthrough in his or her basic skill area.

 

Crises in the Classroom

 

In today's turbulent climate, more of our students will experience crisis than ever before, and as educators we are called upon to help them through these difficult times in their lives.

 

Special education teachers often play a crucial role with their students who are in crisis. Some students with special needs may be particularly at risk when they experience crisis, and special educators need to know how to help them get the support they need, as well as how to work with them in the classroom. Because of the close ties special education teachers often develop with their students, the special educator may be a student's first confidant when crisis hits. As a result, the special educator needs to know how to help her or his students educationally and emotionally and, if necessary, get additional support.

 

Though most special educators have received little or no formal training in working with students in crisis, many have developed communication and problem-solving skills that help their students cope with difficult times.

 

However, teachers can only go so far. For schools to effectively help their students in crisis, they must have a crisis action plan that addresses a continuum of situations, from personal issues such as divorce or death to disasters such as fires and earthquakes. They also need crisis intervention teams that can respond immediately to different situations. The most effective plans include community agencies as well as school resources to provide services for students.

 

Special Education Students At-Risk

 

Some students with special needs, particularly those with learning disabilities or emotional disturbance, are at-risk during crises. These students, who may have difficulty knowing how to get what they need under normal circumstances, may struggle more than others when dealing with crisis. Likewise, students who do not have a good sense of logic and consequences or who do not read social clues well will suffer more in crisis situations. Such students can feel a total loss of control and respond to the situation from a totally emotional base rather than a rational or intellectual model.

 

Some students with learning disabilities are also more susceptible to joining a gang, where they gain a sense of belonging they do not find in the classroom.

 

Also, students from diverse backgrounds may suffer more during times of crisis because their poor English skills keep them from expressing their experiences and/or feelings, or they do not have a support group to help them through the crisis.

 

The Special Educator's Role

 

The special education teacher's role can become very complex when he or she has students in crisis. The special educator may function as a counselor as well as a teacher during difficult times, and in some areas that do not have extensive resources, may be called upon to act as the mental health professional when no one else is available.

 

Many special education folks are so caring and concerned, they are very good at dealing with crises in people's lives.

 

Most special educators agree that crisis in the classroom must be addressed. When a crisis occurs that affects a majority of their students, many special educators reserve class time to talk about the crisis, how it makes everyone feel, and how students can handle it. We must set aside class time and process the situation as a class.

 

If the crisis is a natural disaster such as an earthquake, some educators develop lesson plans to help students understand what has happened. Any teacher in disaster preparedness can develop some simple lessons students with special needs can understand.

 

Other teachers develop writing or drawing activities to help students express their feelings about the crisis, or they may have students read a book that deals with a particular issue so the students know they are not alone in their experience.

 

Addressing a group crisis as a class can be a straightforward decision, but the situation can become more complicated when crisis affects a single individual. Many times, a student will reveal a personal trauma in the middle of class, and the teacher must determine on the spot the most appropriate action to take. He or she must meet the individual student's needs, as well as those of the rest of the class, and safeguard the student's privacy.

 

Depending on the topic, when a single student brings up an issue in class, many special education teachers will take some time to talk with the student, and possibly, include the class in a discussion of the feelings that arise from the event. Others try to talk to the student alone by assigning the other students individual work, sending the class to another educator so the teacher can talk to the student privately, or meeting with the student at another time.

 

Special educators also help students who are in crisis by temporarily cutting back on their expectations for the student. They may extend deadlines, give smaller assignments, or make other adjustments in workloads. However, it is important to try to keep the student engaged in school so that he or she is not too distracted by grieving.

 

Special educators further help their students in crises by being on the lookout for any changes in behavior or lack of progress that signal the need for professional help. Teachers can keep a journal stating what has occurred, the progress the student is making, and the teacher's interventions (met with the parents, sent the student to a counselor, confidentially informed staff of the situation).

 

Getting Support for Students in Crisis

 

Special educators can be a great help to their students by being their friend, showing they care, and engaging in active listening when their students are in crisis. But some students require more help than teachers have been trained to provide. When an educator sees that a student is not improving over time, observes changes in behavior, or is faced with a situation in which a student may be hurt or could hurt others, he or she should get assistance immediately. Resources include counselors, school psychologists, school nurses (many of whom are trained in mental illness), and community agencies.

 

The classroom teacher needs to walk a fine line between taking on what maybe is the job of the psychologist, particularly with a student who has emotional issues.

 

Special educators recommend working closely with a student's parents when a crisis occurs. Special education teachers can share their observations with parents, offer to send them forms or other information they might need, and give them ideas for resources in the community and at school. If an entire family is in crisis, the teacher's input can help parents focus on the needs of the child.

 

Teachers also face times in which students do not want their parents to know about their situation or the student may be the victim of parental abuse. However, the teacher may be held responsible if she or he did not report a confidence and the student is harmed or harms another. Furthermore, teachers are required by law to report any suspicion of abuse to the authorities. In these difficult situations, teachers can talk with the student to determine who should be told of the problem and help develop plans to protect the individual. Teacher can say something like, "This is a really big problem, and you are very upset. Someone else has to be told. Help me decide who will be that person. I'll stay with you, and we'll talk until you help me decide. I understand you don't want me to tell your mom or dad, but I've got to tell somebody."

 

One of the most frustrating things teachers encounter when working with students in crisis is that they do not have the power or authority to get resources working for a child. Despite that fact, teachers need to know who can do what and where and how to get the student the services he or she needs.

 

School-Wide Interventions

 

In the face of the escalating violence students experience, more and more schools are developing crisis intervention strategies. Many schools have school crisis teams, involving psychologists, counselors, nurses, administrators, and peer mediators, that teachers can call on when a student or students are in crisis. When a crisis affects a large portion of the school population, experts from other schools, other districts, or the community may be called on to assist.

 

Experts stress that teachers and staff should be told what the actual extent of the problem is and how to discuss the crisis so that everyone tells the same story and rumors are dispelled. Students who are involved need to have access to phones so they can contact their families. In addition, when a school-wide crisis occurs, a room needs to be set up where students can go when they feel particularly grief-stricken, uncertain, or confused.

 

Some schools also hold discussion groups for students who are dealing with the same type of crisis. Different groups address specific topics such as drugs, grief, girls' issues, gangs, etc. Crisis seems to have made itself a chronic guest in our classrooms. Therefore, teachers can expect to spend more of their time helping students through crisis. It is a role for which we have received little preparation, but one we need to master if we are to help our students succeed in their world.

 

In summary, teachers have a responsibility to develop knowledge and skills regarding their students' health care needs. Maintaining a safe, healthy environment and viewing their students' specialized health care needs as potential educational targets requiring the teacher's expertise in instruction are two issues that require more attention and commitment.

 

Jeff C. Palmer is a teacher, success coach, trainer, Certified Master of Web Copywriting and founder of https://Ebookschoice.com. Jeff is a prolific writer, Senior Research Associate and Infopreneur having written many eBooks, articles and special reports.

 

Source: https://ebookschoice.com/new-developments-for-special-educators-and-students-with-disabilities/

Monitoring The Status Of Students' Journey Towards Science And Mathematics Literacy - ebookschoice.com

A major focus of the current mathematics and science education reforms is on developing "literacy;" that is, helping students to understand and use the languages and ideas of mathematics and science in reasoning, communicating, and solving problems. In many ways, these standards documents are far more voluminous and complex than any scope and sequence in place in school systems today. But these documents are meant to be used as frameworks which provide guidance in education reform - they are not the definitive sources articulating to teachers how education reform must occur in their classrooms.

Our plan in this discussion is to lay out the components of mathematics and science literacy as set down in the major reform documents and then, using selected how-to articles, to show how strategies and activities tried by math and science teachers have been used, or can be used, to promote math and science literacy among students. For pragmatic reasons only, our discussions often focus either on mathematics or science reform recommendations and examples. In doing this, we do not mean to imply that the elements of literacy in these disciplines are somehow separate or different. In fact, the separate discussions show how both the mathematics and science education communities, coming from different directions at different points in time, independently arrived at similar positions and many of the same recommendations regarding the ideas of literacy.

In support of this discussion of the components of literacy, we also provide samples of resources, materials, and services that teachers might find useful in promoting mathematics and science literacy in their classrooms. The how-to articles are meant to be quick-reads that can be applied or adapted to classrooms directly. These articles are included to make it easier to decide which ones might be of special interest. Other articles and documents are intended as sources of a more general background. These documents provide some of the research bases and rationales behind some of the reform recommendations. Finally, we have included other references and information on databases which are not directly cited in the discussion but might prove valuable as additional sources of classroom ideas.

During the last decade, the mathematics education community appeared to lack clear focus and a sense of direction. Although many conferences were held, papers written, and reports produced, there was not a general consensus regarding which direction mathematics education should head.

The Standards offer an organization of important mathematical topics and abilities by grade-level groups (Kindergarten - grade 4, grades 5 - 8, and grades 9 - 12). Throughout the Standards the emphasis is: "knowing" mathematics is "doing" mathematics. Knowledge should emerge from problem situations so that students have a strong conceptual basis for reconstructing their knowledge at a later time. Furthermore, problem solving situations develop mathematical literacy by: (a) providing motivation for developing concepts by establishing a "need to know;" (b) providing opportunities to read, write, discuss, and explore mathematical ideas; and (c) providing opportunities to make conjectures, test, and build arguments about a conjecture's validity. In short, the Standards describes a new curriculum for school mathematics in which students learn more, and often different, mathematics and in which methods of mathematics instruction are significantly different.

This notion of what a mathematics-literate American learner might be is parallel to that of a science-literate student. Similarly to the mathematics education community, science educators and scientists also began to grapple with the lackluster performance of our students relative to students world-wide.

Both the science education and mathematics education communities have in common the image of what discipline literacy requires for this century. Both have pushed the concept of literacy beyond that used in the reading literature. Whereas in reading it is common to find literacy defined by functional grade level performance, in science and mathematics the essence of literacy is increasing sophistication over the course of schooling. This represents a fundamental shift from literacy as a status notion to one of literacy as relative to the context of knowing - that is, the real world, the domains of the discipline, and specific applications. For teachers, this non-static notion of literacy presents considerable challenge and opportunity. And, when presented with standards documents that are not linear, not sequential, and not hierarchical in their recommendations, the teacher or teacher-advocate has the responsibility of translating the image statements into instructional materials, textbooks, learning activities, and pedagogical practices.

A major premise of both the mathematics and science standards is that what a student thinks, knows, and can do is greatly dependent upon how the student learned it. Research across a variety of disciplines indicates that students may learn best when they construct their own understanding of the material. This implies that teachers do not, and cannot, pass understanding to their students; instead, teachers can only engage students in activities from which students construct their own meaning. In short, learning is an individual activity fostered within the social context of teaching. This does not imply, however, that students must always "reinvent the wheel." For example, basic computation and algorithms were invented precisely so that people would not have to count on their fingers and toes to solve each problem. Formulas in science serve similar practical purposes. However, such activities should not dominate the mathematics or the science curriculum. Furthermore, computational procedures should be developed in contexts so that students perceive them as tools for solving problems not as problems to be solved.

In the mathematics and science reform literature, meaningful learning is promoted when students actively inquire. Inquiry in the reformed mathematics and science classrooms is more than just doing activities; it involves interacting with peers, teachers, people outside of the classroom and the school, and all kinds of resources. In the inquiry classroom prescribed in the reform literature, students work collaboratively on problems that are engaging and relevant; they ask questions; they access and use information from a variety of resources; and they challenge the ideas of others. Teachers, in turn, challenge their students about their observations, hypotheses, explanations, procedures, and evidence. We refer to this interactive kind of inquiry as "Inquiry" (i.e., inquiry with a capital I and in italics) to emphasize the importance of interacting orally and in writing as recommended in the reform movements. Inquiry is not restricted by student age, content, or context. Students at the earliest grade levels can use and develop the skills of mathematical and scientific Inquiry.

There should be a lot of investigation and debate going on in the science classroom. Inquiry in science is characterized by its demand for evidence, reliance on a blend of logic and imagination, expectation that scientists try to identify and avoid bias, rejection of authoritarianism, and recognition that science is a complex social activity. These characteristics of scientific inquiry are translated into instructional goals and standards in the reform literature. Similarly in mathematics, the theme of Inquiry is manifested in the standards and in the instructional activities. Whole-class discussions can provide students opportunities to synthesize, evaluate, and summarize strategies, ideas, and/or hypotheses. Small group discussions can provide opportunities to discuss and exchange ideas with peers, and individual work can help students to develop confidence in their own mathematical abilities. Different instructional approaches and activities such as those which develop students' Inquiry abilities will be discussed in the following sections.

In both mathematics and science, Inquiry can be "issues-based." This approach heightens the interest level, and therefore, the engagement of students. Throughout the Standards the importance of connecting mathematics to real-world problems (and hence utilizing an issues-based approach in teaching) is emphasized. Real-world problems with 'messy' numbers or too much or not enough information or that have multiple solutions, each with different consequences, will better prepare students to solve problems they are likely to encounter in their daily lives. The key to the effectiveness of the issues-based approach is to use a learning prompt which is appropriate and interesting to the learners. Teachers must also take care to use open-ended tasks for which there are multiple correct solutions. These open-ended tasks will then promote experimentation and exploration on the part of each student and will avoid the recall of particular facts, algorithms, or procedures.

An example of a series of issues-based lessons is Mathematics in Baseball in which students work in small groups investigating baseball statistics as well as other aspects of the game. Stimuli for small group discussions are provided in the article, which encourage students to exchange ideas, offer and receive constructive criticism, develop and test hypotheses, and make and correct mistakes in their small groups. Another example of a teaching module utilizing the issues-based approach is Involve the Community which confronts misconceptions students may have about the usefulness of mathematics and science in their own lives outside of school. Students go into the local community and interview someone to find out how that person uses mathematics on the job. Students are then responsible for developing mathematical problems described during their interviews, scheduling the person to speak to class, and writing a term paper concerning what they learned during their interview.

In science, the unity of perspective is not as evident. There are those who interpret science literacy to mean that life skills and citizenship are the key elements, not the rigorous scholarship or mastery of any specific science content or processes. This is countered by those who advocate for a focus on conceptual learning in the context of real-world problem solving.

Those who advocate for a life-skills and citizenship approach to science instruction are exemplified by Hurd's statement, "Modern science is driven more by societal needs than by theory." This societal perspective with its emphasis on life learning and citizenship places greater value on "knowing how" than on "knowing that" in defining science literacy. 

The issues-based, societal perspective is the basis of the Science-Technology-Society approach. With its learn the science you need to know when you have a need to know it philosophy, there is no such thing as a fixed science curriculum or mandatory content or set of process skills. Students in an classroom identify personal, school, or community problems and issues and work collaboratively on a solution, learning and using appropriate science content and skills in the process of solving the problem or resolving the issue. Proponents claim that the approach develops science literacy more effectively than a content-driven curriculum because the problems are real and the learning is relevant to the students. The "medium is the message;" concepts and principles of science, however well-learned outside the context of a societal or personal issue, are not science at all, or at least not the kind of science worth learning. Teachers have reported numerous issues-based instructional activities across a range of issues.

Advocates of conceptual change learning view the elements of understandings and habits of mind in the definition of science literacy as key and argue for Inquiry that promotes meaningful learning of critical content and process knowledge in science. Teachers emphasize the importance of both the students and the teacher knowing what the student already knows and uses in everyday life situations and applications to engage students and provide context for learning science concepts and processes.

The major difference between the issues-based Inquiry and Inquiry for conceptual change is that specific ideas are targeted for instruction. For example, in science, playground equipment and amusement park rides are used to explore basic laws of force and motion. The properties of liquids and gases are investigated when students make their own carbonated soft drinks; or the life cycle of a common house fly is learned by studying the droppings of the classroom guinea pig. Teachers have used state-of-the-art technologies such as high-speed trains, entrepreneurial interests of students, "who-dunnit" detective scenarios and The Great Tape Robbery, and even current hit movies to capture student interest and to teach for conceptual change with regard to basic science concepts.

Similarly, important mathematics content is described throughout the Standards. For example, all three grade-level divisions include probability and/or statistics standard(s) as well as a geometry standard; and two grade-level divisions include measurement, estimation, algebra, and functions standards. As in science, Inquiry is a central theme in classroom instruction: throughout the Standards, verbs such as explore, justify, represent, solve, construct, discuss, investigate, describe, develop, and predict are used to convey this active physical and mental involvement of children in learning the content of the curriculum.

As in conceptual change learning in science, specific ideas, skills, and/or mathematical concepts can be targeted for instruction. For example, teachers have used common materials such as popcorn for developing data analysis skills, calculators to discover number patterns and hone estimation skills. Teachers have integrated math and art to develop geometric concepts, and math and science to develop geometric concepts and measurement and estimation skills.

In another lesson, students learn to apply probability models as well as use simulations to estimate probabilities concerning boy/girl birth ratios and the average number of children in a family. And student development of spatial imagery is targeted in the lesson Promoting Visual Imagery in Young Pupils. The magazines are useful resources for Inquiry for conceptual change-type instructional activities.

The challenge of managing Inquiry learning environments without sacrificing intellectual vigor is not insignificant. Student-centered learning is grounded in moderating the Inquiry-based classroom, which is prompted with exploration and stimulated with manipulatives in a way that is connected to the students' real world. By reflecting on students' growth in the disciplines, teachers will understand what pedagogical techniques work well to move students along on their learning journey.

Because the standards themselves represent the possibilities for instructional focus rather than the requirements for instructional focus, the teacher is placed in the important leadership role of selecting the optimal content to engage each particular group of students in the work of the discipline. The selection process must take into account local content goals, learning goals that ensure that the "habits of mind" of the disciplines are reinforced, resource availability, and the interest levels and developmental characteristics of the students. In short, optimizing learning in mathematics and science is not an algorithmic process.

The role of teacher as facilitator of learning begins to take on real meaning as the standards are implemented. And teachers seeking a cookbook for effective mathematics and science teaching will be sorely disappointed.

In clear and unequivocal ways, the role of the teacher as implementer of either the science or mathematics standards becomes more important in defining the learning journey for students than ever before. Because the standards documents are to be used as frameworks to guide mathematics and science education reform, teachers' professional judgment becomes more and more powerful as a force in defining the schooling experience for students. For this reason, those teachers who choose to or are chosen to teach mathematics and science must have an in-depth understanding of that which they are teaching.

In order for teachers to make decisions about what, when, and how to teach science and mathematics, they must have a rich understanding of the content and appreciate how knowledge in a content area is created, organized, linked to other disciplines and applied to real-world settings.

Teachers who effectively use the standards documents to guide daily instructional decisions must have specialized knowledge of how to teach the content (i.e., content-pedagogy), and they must recognize misconceptions and background knowledge that may make growing sophistication problematic. They must, of course, also be able to modify and reorganize to meet the needs of all learners.

The emphasis in the critical response skills is on argument and evidence. We contend that some or all of these "symptoms" should be used more or less as "ground rules" for Inquiry in (and out of) the classroom. For example, making activities such as checking that statements (both oral and written) do not intermingle fact and opinion or that celebrities aren't used as authorities in arguments part of what routinely happens in science class will develop the "habits of mind" so valued by reform proponents and reinforce the use of these same habits of mind beyond the classroom walls and school years.

Teachers who use an issues-based approach usually have little trouble creating an Inquiry environment. Personal and societal issues (e.g., landfills, toxic waste, AIDS, pollution) are readily controversial and lend themselves to investigation and argument. It is generally not difficult to find students who will take opposite sides of an issue or classrooms of students to find public groups with opposing positions. Teachers have used a variety of issues-based topics with great success, for example, investigations of ecological problems; Integrating Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education Resource and Guidelines; The Curriculum File; Computerized Simulation as an Inquiry Tool, or problems dealing with death and aging; Debates: Verbal Encounters in the Science Classroom. What is challenging for the teacher who utilizes an issues-based approach is to keep students focused on those aspects of the argument that can be resolved with scientific and/or mathematical evidence, and/or which utilize scientific and/or mathematical reasoning, and to minimize those aspects of the argument that are strictly emotional, political, and/or personal. One must also keep in mind that just because an activity is issues-based does not imply that students will use or develop Inquiry skills. Students must generate and evaluate arguments on the basis of the scientific and/or mathematical evidence they gather and evaluate their conjectures using the rigorous standards of mathematical and scientific inquiry.

In classrooms where the emphasis is on understanding specified content and process outcomes, controversies are not at all obvious to students (or to most teachers) and any disagreements that arise are usually not as sensational as they are in an issues-based classroom activities. But the potential for argument and for debate nonetheless exists. Facilitating Inquiry when there is no "hot" social issue requires that the focus shift to the controversy embedded in science and mathematical ideas themselves. The alternative conceptions and/or misconceptions that students hold in a given topic or area are excellent sources of controversial ideas that can be investigated. For example, controversies from the history of science such as the phlogiston theory of heat or the geo-centric model of our solar system - can be used to stimulate Inquiry for conceptual change. Common misconceptions of mathematical concepts can be also confronted and explored, as can common student mathematical errors.

The strategy of simply suspending judgment or withholding the correct answer is very effective at stimulating discussion. Challenging students who hold different ideas to produce evidence of their respective positions is one way to stimulate debate, discussion, and investigation and turn routine lessons into Inquiry sessions. Simple modifications of cookbook activities (e.g., adding an open-ended question or posing an extra-credit question) or project work that requires students to work collaboratively is another effective way of facilitating Inquiry.

Inquiry can also be facilitated directly by using variations of the "student-teaching-students" idea. A strategy that has been around for centuries but still is effective today is "cross-age tutoring." But tutoring must be done in a hands-on rich environment so that legitimate Inquiry can take place. When older students inquire with younger students, both benefit from the experience.

As it does in any language, the ability to communicate well requires more than the knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical rules - one must also be fluent in using the language in both speaking and writing. Both the mathematics and science standards identify learning to communicate mathematically as an important goal for all students. As students communicate their ideas, they learn to clarify, refine, and consolidate their thinking. In other words, communication helps students to enhance their understanding of mathematics.

Learning the language of mathematics or science is not a simple task. For young children, representing is an important way of communicating mathematical ideas. Physical models can be used to represent and develop mathematical concepts. Furthermore, with young children the connections between thought and spoken word are usually stronger than those between thoughts and written symbols. Thus, children should be encouraged to relate their everyday language to mathematical language and symbols and to verbalize their thoughts and thinking processes.

As students progress in school, their mathematics communications should become increasingly sophisticated, that is, become more formal and symbolic. The introduction and use of technical symbolism should, however, evolve as a natural extension and refinement on the students' own language. Moreover, great care must be taken to ensure that students are aware of the connections between mathematical concepts and symbols, otherwise students are likely to view symbols as disparate, empty objects which are to be memorized and/or manipulated. All students should be provided opportunities to listen to, read about, write about, speak about, and reflect upon their mathematical ideas. It is not enough for students to merely write a response to an exercise or to "show all their work" on a problem. It is equally important that students be able to explain how they arrived at their responses as well as describe the difficulties they encountered during problem-solving processes. Students must constantly be encouraged to clarify, paraphrase, or elaborate on their mathematical ideas and relationships. These are means by which students enhance their mathematical understanding and teachers monitor their students' mathematical progress and understanding.

In reformed mathematics and science classrooms, literacy means being able to express oneself, defend one's ideas, and critically analyze claims both orally and in writing. Journaling, logging, and keeping a portfolio are as much a part of the reformed science and mathematics classroom regimen as they are of any arts or humanities classroom. Portfolio assessment strategies are especially effective in promoting Inquiry. When students have to explain, argue, and reflect on their work rather than simply to select responses, answer questions, and complete standard form assignments, both their writing and Inquiry skills are enhanced. Portfolio scoring rubrics based on evidence and logic of argument communicate to students the value and importance of Inquiry skills.

Student problems and misunderstanding can be revealed and corrected. Teachers can use student writing to identify which instructional techniques did/did not work and modify their techniques accordingly. Furthermore, through student writing teachers can examine what students have learned versus what those students think they have learned and use this information in assisting students in developing their metacognitive skills ("knowing how to learn"). However, it should be noted that the utilization of information gained from student writing is dependent upon the quality of both the writing prompts and the teachers. Teachers must collect, read, and give feedback to students frequently. And teachers must be ready to receive and use constructive (and perhaps not-so-constructive) criticism.

The move to emphasize patterns of argument and thought in the language of mathematics and science Inquiry has payoff potential across the curriculum. For example, there is strong evidence that analyzing the language and layout of good expository material enhances the general reading, comprehension, and critical thinking skills of younger students. High school science and mathematics teachers report great improvement in creative writing skills, critical thinking, student attitudes toward the subjects, and conceptual understanding when students keep journals and are encouraged to compose creative writing reports (e.g., case histories and resumes) in place of standard laboratory reports or other conventional tasks. However, it should be noted that attempts by teachers to translate results of alternate assessments, journal writings, and other creative writing into letter grades can be difficult and that racial differences may affect students' performance on open-ended items on standardized tests as compared to multiple-choice items was found.

The current reform agenda has the potential to dramatically alter the experiences that children have in science and mathematics classrooms in America. The standards documents themselves set the tone for a new understanding of science and mathematics literacy for all Americans. They present an image of the classroom that is Inquiry-oriented, activity-based, and engaging. The role of the teacher changes from that of disseminator of information to one of a mentor-scholar as children present ideas, challenge ideas, and reconceptualize these ideas.

This shift in the image of what a learning environment should look like calls upon teachers to take risks and to incorporate new instructional strategies into established pedagogical practices. The standards themselves, as a replacement for a scope and sequence or hierarchical curriculum, challenge the teacher to make professional judgments about what the appropriate content and context vehicles are for each group of students to maximize their learning. Teachers must take on instructional leadership roles. To do this, they must have both content and content-pedagogical knowledge. Background in the disciplines of mathematics and science is essential to support an effective Inquiry-oriented, student-centered classroom consistent with the standards documents. This expertise is also essential to the appropriate and reasonable assessment of whether or not students are becoming increasingly sophisticated in their understanding of important science and mathematics. This view of what quality work is in mathematics or science does not come from the standards. This understanding can and should come only from the expert professional classroom teacher. Thus, the ultimate challenge of the reform goals for classroom practice is for teachers to increase in their understanding of mathematics and science so that they have the appropriate frame of reference for identifying appropriate learning goals, selecting instructional resources to support students' construction of meaning, sequencing and pacing the activities in the learning environment to support learning, and monitoring the status of students' journey towards science and mathematics literacy.

 

 

Jeff C. Palmer is a teacher, success coach, trainer, Certified Master of Web Copywriting and founder of https://Ebookschoice.com. Jeff is a prolific writer, Senior Research Associate and Infopreneur having written many eBooks, articles and special reports.

 

Source: https://ebookschoice.com/monitoring-the-status-of-students-journey-towards-science-and-mathematics-literacy/