To improve school quality and raise performance, educational leaders at the district,
state, and federal level are faced with the challenge to:
state, and federal level are faced with the challenge to:
• Address Socioeconomic Disparity.
Thirty percent of the children in urban areas are poor compared to 18% for the
nation as a whole. Urban schools are twice as likely to enroll minority and
immigrant children than the national average. When compared to the national
level, students in urban areas are three times as likely to live in extremely
impoverished neighborhoods.
Thirty percent of the children in urban areas are poor compared to 18% for the
nation as a whole. Urban schools are twice as likely to enroll minority and
immigrant children than the national average. When compared to the national
level, students in urban areas are three times as likely to live in extremely
impoverished neighborhoods.
• Improve Teaching and Learning.
Urbanity and poverty intensify the magnitude of constraints on teaching and
learning. While only 23% of the fourth graders in high poverty schools
performed at the basic level or higher in the national reading tests, almost
70% of their peers did so in schools with less poverty outside the urban
setting. A substantial number of teachers in urban and rural settings are
teaching in areas in which they did not earn a minor or a major in college.
Urbanity and poverty intensify the magnitude of constraints on teaching and
learning. While only 23% of the fourth graders in high poverty schools
performed at the basic level or higher in the national reading tests, almost
70% of their peers did so in schools with less poverty outside the urban
setting. A substantial number of teachers in urban and rural settings are
teaching in areas in which they did not earn a minor or a major in college.
• Manage the technological gap.
Digital divide between the "haves" and the "have-nots" will
widen if public schools lag behind in developing learning opportunities to meet
the technological challenge.
Digital divide between the "haves" and the "have-nots" will
widen if public schools lag behind in developing learning opportunities to meet
the technological challenge.
• Sustain Leadership Quality. Urban
superintendents have an average tenure of less than 3 years. Top talents are
leaving the public sector for the fast-growing sector of e-commerce.
superintendents have an average tenure of less than 3 years. Top talents are
leaving the public sector for the fast-growing sector of e-commerce.
• Regain public confidence. While
68% of the urban school board members rated their schools as A and B, only 47%
of the urban public did. The public seemed half as likely than the board
members to agree that the schools were "doing a good job" in preparing
students for college, keeping violence and drugs out of schools, and teaching
children who don't speak English.
68% of the urban school board members rated their schools as A and B, only 47%
of the urban public did. The public seemed half as likely than the board
members to agree that the schools were "doing a good job" in preparing
students for college, keeping violence and drugs out of schools, and teaching
children who don't speak English.
To address these complex tasks more
effectively, policymakers have adopted various reform models to change the
school's operational processes and its governance structure. Two emerging
models of school governance reform that are designed to improve student
performance within the public educational sector are: (1) "integrated
governance," a term that we developed based on our research, and (2)
charter school reform. These two models demonstrate the range of institutional
options that policymakers can select in their efforts to improve accountability
and management.
effectively, policymakers have adopted various reform models to change the
school's operational processes and its governance structure. Two emerging
models of school governance reform that are designed to improve student
performance within the public educational sector are: (1) "integrated
governance," a term that we developed based on our research, and (2)
charter school reform. These two models demonstrate the range of institutional
options that policymakers can select in their efforts to improve accountability
and management.
The two emerging models differ along
several design dimensions. Integrated governance adopts a "corporate
model" to improve school management and finance, it seeks to raise
academic standards for all students system-wide, it applies sanctions and
targets support to turn around low-performing schools, and its power is decentralized
and governed by system-wide standards. The charter school model adopts
consumer-based preferences to promote competition, it seeks to raise
performance and promote alternative assessment, to turn around low performing
schools it uses site-specific strategies that may be part of a reform network,
and there is strong autonomy at the school level.
several design dimensions. Integrated governance adopts a "corporate
model" to improve school management and finance, it seeks to raise
academic standards for all students system-wide, it applies sanctions and
targets support to turn around low-performing schools, and its power is decentralized
and governed by system-wide standards. The charter school model adopts
consumer-based preferences to promote competition, it seeks to raise
performance and promote alternative assessment, to turn around low performing
schools it uses site-specific strategies that may be part of a reform network,
and there is strong autonomy at the school level.
Whereas integrated governance relies
on system-wide institutions and standards to target low performance, charter
schools focus innovation and promote alternative assessment in a market-like
environment. Understanding these emerging models will help in developing the
proper balance of various reform strategies.
on system-wide institutions and standards to target low performance, charter
schools focus innovation and promote alternative assessment in a market-like
environment. Understanding these emerging models will help in developing the
proper balance of various reform strategies.
Integrated governance maintains a
proper balance between site-based decision-making and system-wide performance-based
accountability. It focuses on district-level capacity to reduce institutional
fragmentation and raise academic accountability. This kind of restructuring is
based on:
proper balance between site-based decision-making and system-wide performance-based
accountability. It focuses on district-level capacity to reduce institutional
fragmentation and raise academic accountability. This kind of restructuring is
based on:
• a clear vision
of education accountability that focuses on
academic standards and performance outcomes;
of education accountability that focuses on
academic standards and performance outcomes;
• strong political support to
improve the operation of the school system;
improve the operation of the school system;
• district-level capacity to
intervene in failing schools; and
intervene in failing schools; and
• a mix of direct intervention and
support strategies to meet the challenges faced by urban schools.
support strategies to meet the challenges faced by urban schools.
This emerging model is likely to
spread as an increasing number of mayors have gained control over the public
schools. Mayoral control may not necessarily turn into integrated governance
reform; for example, mayors may be reluctant to play an active role even though
they are granted the legislative authority; mayoral control may be constrained
by state legislative compromise; or civic leadership may be the driving force
behind a more focused, performance-based accountability framework.
spread as an increasing number of mayors have gained control over the public
schools. Mayoral control may not necessarily turn into integrated governance
reform; for example, mayors may be reluctant to play an active role even though
they are granted the legislative authority; mayoral control may be constrained
by state legislative compromise; or civic leadership may be the driving force
behind a more focused, performance-based accountability framework.
More importantly, integrated
governance reform is not simply a recentralization of authority nor can it be
fully understood by focusing only on the issue of city takeover. Instead,
integrated governance redefines the responsibilities and enhances the capacity
of the district-wide leadership. Given its strong focus on raising student
performance, integrated governance legitimizes system-wide standards and
policies that identify and target intervention at low performing schools. In
effect, integrated governance creates institutional pressure and support that
are necessary to address a key limitation of decentralization, namely, that
organizational changes at the school site are not sufficient for academic
improvement system-wide. While decentralization may produce successful reform
in some schools, system-wide improvement is not likely to occur unless
district-wide leadership has the political will and the capacity to implement
outcome-based accountability.
governance reform is not simply a recentralization of authority nor can it be
fully understood by focusing only on the issue of city takeover. Instead,
integrated governance redefines the responsibilities and enhances the capacity
of the district-wide leadership. Given its strong focus on raising student
performance, integrated governance legitimizes system-wide standards and
policies that identify and target intervention at low performing schools. In
effect, integrated governance creates institutional pressure and support that
are necessary to address a key limitation of decentralization, namely, that
organizational changes at the school site are not sufficient for academic
improvement system-wide. While decentralization may produce successful reform
in some schools, system-wide improvement is not likely to occur unless
district-wide leadership has the political will and the capacity to implement
outcome-based accountability.
