With the best of intentions,
educators are recommending an infusion of energy directed at increasing parental participation in
schools. The federal government has issued documents to help schools
organize parent participation programs. Major educational interventions list
parental involvement as an important ingredient. Scholarly writing on the topic abounds; new searches produce
hundreds of references, many of them guides for schools to help increase
parental participation or descriptions of programs implemented in one locality
or another. The purpose of this report is to review scientific research on the
role of parents’ involvement—at home and in school—in supporting children’s
academic achievement. Unfortunately, the mountain of material about parent-school
partnerships yields very little if any empirical data about the impact of
parental involvement on students’ academic
achievement. This review focuses on a different set of research studies:
studies of specific parenting practices that empirical data have shown are
related to students’ academic achievement. The
factors considered here, unlike characteristics such as race/ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, or native language, are “manipulable;” that is, within
the control of individual parents to increase or decrease. That parents play a
critical role in their children’s learning is without question. In fact,
extensive research reviews find that the home environment is among the most
important influences on academic performance. At the same time, there are
enormous differences in how parents interact with their children at home and
how they involve themselves in school-related activities. It is important to
understand how, and to what extent, these “parental engagement behaviors”
bolster children’s learning before implementing programs to further promote
such behaviors. Scientific studies of the relationship of parents’ behavior
with academic performance among school-aged children have examined diverse
topics, including, for example, parenting styles; the precursors of learning in
school; school outcomes among students at risk; the impact of family structure
on children’s development; and student resilience. Differences in children’s
performance could be explained instead by environmental process variables; that
is, specific conditions and parental behaviors related to cognitive
functioning. Among their process variables were parents’ roles as language
models, parents’ press for achievement, and provisions for general learning. Parents of high-achieving students
had distinct styles of interacting with their children; they made continuous
attempts to create emotionally supportive home environments and provided
reassurance when the youngsters encountered failure. School performance was
viewed as being accomplished through regular practice and work. Parents in
these homes accepted responsibility for assisting their children to acquire
learning strategies as well as a general
fund of knowledge. Recent research has focused on specific clusters of
behavior, and may give more direct guidance to parents and educators. This
research has revealed that parental engagement at home and engagement at school
are not equally important to children’s learning; which of these is important
depends upon the child’s age. At home, parents undertake specific activities in
support of their children’s school work; they interact
directly with the child in a number of ways. At school, parents display
their interest and concern by attending school functions, by interacting with
the teachers, and by playing an active role in the classroom. Certain
responsibilities are attached to each of these, even for parents who undertake
them with pleasure. Engagement at home requires that time be allocated for
school-related interactions. Parents must maintain a level of awareness of the
children’s school activities and a degree of competence in interacting with the
child and supporting his/her academic
work. Engagement at school requires a major commitment of time—time not
always available to a single parent or one with full-time employment.
educators are recommending an infusion of energy directed at increasing parental participation in
schools. The federal government has issued documents to help schools
organize parent participation programs. Major educational interventions list
parental involvement as an important ingredient. Scholarly writing on the topic abounds; new searches produce
hundreds of references, many of them guides for schools to help increase
parental participation or descriptions of programs implemented in one locality
or another. The purpose of this report is to review scientific research on the
role of parents’ involvement—at home and in school—in supporting children’s
academic achievement. Unfortunately, the mountain of material about parent-school
partnerships yields very little if any empirical data about the impact of
parental involvement on students’ academic
achievement. This review focuses on a different set of research studies:
studies of specific parenting practices that empirical data have shown are
related to students’ academic achievement. The
factors considered here, unlike characteristics such as race/ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, or native language, are “manipulable;” that is, within
the control of individual parents to increase or decrease. That parents play a
critical role in their children’s learning is without question. In fact,
extensive research reviews find that the home environment is among the most
important influences on academic performance. At the same time, there are
enormous differences in how parents interact with their children at home and
how they involve themselves in school-related activities. It is important to
understand how, and to what extent, these “parental engagement behaviors”
bolster children’s learning before implementing programs to further promote
such behaviors. Scientific studies of the relationship of parents’ behavior
with academic performance among school-aged children have examined diverse
topics, including, for example, parenting styles; the precursors of learning in
school; school outcomes among students at risk; the impact of family structure
on children’s development; and student resilience. Differences in children’s
performance could be explained instead by environmental process variables; that
is, specific conditions and parental behaviors related to cognitive
functioning. Among their process variables were parents’ roles as language
models, parents’ press for achievement, and provisions for general learning. Parents of high-achieving students
had distinct styles of interacting with their children; they made continuous
attempts to create emotionally supportive home environments and provided
reassurance when the youngsters encountered failure. School performance was
viewed as being accomplished through regular practice and work. Parents in
these homes accepted responsibility for assisting their children to acquire
learning strategies as well as a general
fund of knowledge. Recent research has focused on specific clusters of
behavior, and may give more direct guidance to parents and educators. This
research has revealed that parental engagement at home and engagement at school
are not equally important to children’s learning; which of these is important
depends upon the child’s age. At home, parents undertake specific activities in
support of their children’s school work; they interact
directly with the child in a number of ways. At school, parents display
their interest and concern by attending school functions, by interacting with
the teachers, and by playing an active role in the classroom. Certain
responsibilities are attached to each of these, even for parents who undertake
them with pleasure. Engagement at home requires that time be allocated for
school-related interactions. Parents must maintain a level of awareness of the
children’s school activities and a degree of competence in interacting with the
child and supporting his/her academic
work. Engagement at school requires a major commitment of time—time not
always available to a single parent or one with full-time employment.
Three dimensions of engagement at
home have been consistently found to be associated with school performance:
home have been consistently found to be associated with school performance:
- Parents actively organizing and monitoring their
children’s time.
- Parents helping with homework.
- Parents discussing school matters with their
youngsters.
A fourth set of activities is
germane particularly for younger children:
germane particularly for younger children:
- Parents reading to,
and being read to, by their children.
The exact form that each of these
takes may differ from one family to another, but research shows that each is
important. Parents of successful students actively helped them organize their
daily and weekly schedules, and checked regularly to see if they were following
the routines; other studies have shown that children who are involved in
regular “routines” at home tend to have better school performance. It is likely
that family routines that establish behavior patterns in the early years are
precursors to school behavior patterns and learning
throughout the grades. Monitoring children’s use of time is found to be
important in all studies of parental engagement. Both school-related and
non-school related activities are significant. Research shows that parents of
academically successful students make sure they are informed about their
children’s activities in school, their school performance, whether or not they
have been assigned homework, and make certain that a place and time are
allocated for homework. In addition, school performance is better among
students whose parents know where they are, whom they are with, when they plan
to come home, and exercise reasonable control over non-school
activities—television viewing in particular. It is not uncommon for students to
be assigned small amounts of homework even in the early grades. Homework offers
an opportunity for parents to take a direct role in their children’s schooling.
Making certain that homework is completed, discussing the specifics of homework
assignments and papers, explaining the assignments, examining and checking the
completeness and accuracy of homework, and actively helping children complete
assignments have all been found to be related to children’s academic
performance. Of course each generation brings home school work with which
parents are not familiar. However, even the acts of asking children about the
specifics of an assignment, examining completed work, and asking questions
about it on a regular basis underscore the importance that parents attach to
the acquisition of academic skills. In
some instances, parents may serve as tutors to their children. The familiarity
of the home environment, in contrast to the structure of the classroom, can
become a comfortable setting in which a parent can serve as tutor. A survey of
parents of elementary school children found that over 85% spent at least 15
minutes daily tutoring their children when it was requested by the teacher. Of
course, tutoring too requires some degree of subject-matter knowledge and some
knowledge of teaching strategies.
takes may differ from one family to another, but research shows that each is
important. Parents of successful students actively helped them organize their
daily and weekly schedules, and checked regularly to see if they were following
the routines; other studies have shown that children who are involved in
regular “routines” at home tend to have better school performance. It is likely
that family routines that establish behavior patterns in the early years are
precursors to school behavior patterns and learning
throughout the grades. Monitoring children’s use of time is found to be
important in all studies of parental engagement. Both school-related and
non-school related activities are significant. Research shows that parents of
academically successful students make sure they are informed about their
children’s activities in school, their school performance, whether or not they
have been assigned homework, and make certain that a place and time are
allocated for homework. In addition, school performance is better among
students whose parents know where they are, whom they are with, when they plan
to come home, and exercise reasonable control over non-school
activities—television viewing in particular. It is not uncommon for students to
be assigned small amounts of homework even in the early grades. Homework offers
an opportunity for parents to take a direct role in their children’s schooling.
Making certain that homework is completed, discussing the specifics of homework
assignments and papers, explaining the assignments, examining and checking the
completeness and accuracy of homework, and actively helping children complete
assignments have all been found to be related to children’s academic
performance. Of course each generation brings home school work with which
parents are not familiar. However, even the acts of asking children about the
specifics of an assignment, examining completed work, and asking questions
about it on a regular basis underscore the importance that parents attach to
the acquisition of academic skills. In
some instances, parents may serve as tutors to their children. The familiarity
of the home environment, in contrast to the structure of the classroom, can
become a comfortable setting in which a parent can serve as tutor. A survey of
parents of elementary school children found that over 85% spent at least 15
minutes daily tutoring their children when it was requested by the teacher. Of
course, tutoring too requires some degree of subject-matter knowledge and some
knowledge of teaching strategies.
Children whose parents converse
regularly with them—even daily—about school experiences have better academic performance than children who
rarely discuss school with their parents. Other research suggests that the
nature of parent-child discussions is also an important factor. Parents should
be willing to hear about difficulties as well as successes and play a
supportive role, encouraging persistence when school work or relationships at
school are problematic. Research supports a practice of joint parent-student
decision-making when the situation permits, for example, what project to
undertake or, in later grades, what courses to take. This level of interest is
associated with higher student
engagement in school as well as with academic achievement. New studies have
shown a positive relationship between a literacy-laden home and students’
school performance. The presence of newspapers, magazines, books, and a computer
helps to create a positive home setting. Even when these resources are in short
supply, reading to a child and asking the child to read to the parent are
crucial activities for the development of literacy. A great deal of research
confirms a strong relationship between parents reading to their children and
the development of reading proficiency. Further, there is an important
connection between children reading to their parents—especially if the parents
guide and correct the young readers—and reading achievement. Unfortunately,
these interactions are often attenuated. Many households, especially low-income
and/or minority homes, have few books in total and even fewer that are
appropriate and interesting to children. Children from these homes arrive at
school with surprisingly little experience with books—even how to hold them or
where to start looking for text. At the same time, many parents feel they lack
the skills, or actually do lack the skills, to guide their children’s reading
or school work. Some parents who, in their children’s interests, attempt to
read with their youngsters, make “beginners” mistakes—for example, reading an
entire story just to get through it when part of a story would suffice;
focusing so much on mechanics that their child’s motivation is diminished;
taking a punitive attitude when the child makes errors.
regularly with them—even daily—about school experiences have better academic performance than children who
rarely discuss school with their parents. Other research suggests that the
nature of parent-child discussions is also an important factor. Parents should
be willing to hear about difficulties as well as successes and play a
supportive role, encouraging persistence when school work or relationships at
school are problematic. Research supports a practice of joint parent-student
decision-making when the situation permits, for example, what project to
undertake or, in later grades, what courses to take. This level of interest is
associated with higher student
engagement in school as well as with academic achievement. New studies have
shown a positive relationship between a literacy-laden home and students’
school performance. The presence of newspapers, magazines, books, and a computer
helps to create a positive home setting. Even when these resources are in short
supply, reading to a child and asking the child to read to the parent are
crucial activities for the development of literacy. A great deal of research
confirms a strong relationship between parents reading to their children and
the development of reading proficiency. Further, there is an important
connection between children reading to their parents—especially if the parents
guide and correct the young readers—and reading achievement. Unfortunately,
these interactions are often attenuated. Many households, especially low-income
and/or minority homes, have few books in total and even fewer that are
appropriate and interesting to children. Children from these homes arrive at
school with surprisingly little experience with books—even how to hold them or
where to start looking for text. At the same time, many parents feel they lack
the skills, or actually do lack the skills, to guide their children’s reading
or school work. Some parents who, in their children’s interests, attempt to
read with their youngsters, make “beginners” mistakes—for example, reading an
entire story just to get through it when part of a story would suffice;
focusing so much on mechanics that their child’s motivation is diminished;
taking a punitive attitude when the child makes errors.
School-sponsored programs, although
not universally available, have been highly successful in improving these
situations. At least one program provided books that the children took home
twice a week. Better programs have
proactive components to recruit parents, improve their literacy skills,
overcome obstacles to literacy activities in the home, help parents develop a
regular structure for home-based literacy, and convince parents that their
children can become successful readers. Most research on parental engagement at
home, with the exception of studies of parent-child reading, has involved
students in junior high-school grades. There are good reasons to believe that
the same parental engagement behaviors are important in the younger years.
Psychologists and educators agree on the importance of early years in setting
habits that persevere throughout childhood and beyond. Since early
dysfunctional behavior tends to be sustained and to increase over the years,
the most efficient time to start a child on a positive trajectory is when
he/she is young. Household routines involving school work, and discussions of
school matters, should be initiated when school begins. Involvement with a
child’s homework should occur the first time homework is assigned—often in an
earlier grade than parents expect. The opportunity to stay intensively involved
in school diminishes as students become increasingly independent and as peers come
to have greater influence. At the same time, parents can continue to be
in-school participants by visiting school; attending school events,
performances, and athletics; and initiating contact with teachers and
administrators. It may be surprising that research has not consistently
documented links between in-school engagement and student achievement. Teachers
may pay more attention to students whose parents are involved in the school
which may in turn explain the relationship. Given this research base, it is
natural to ask why there is so much press to increase parent-school
partnerships. Much has been written about different ways in which parents and
schools can work together to facilitate
academic outcomes; basic health and safety responsibilities of parents and
schools; parents volunteering to assist at school and attending school
functions; parental involvement in learning at home, as recommended and
supported by school staff; parental involvement in decision making; and
encouraging parents and schools to become involved in community organizations
that support families and children’s
learning. Parents who are involved in some of these activities tend also to
be involved in others, but not that these activities are related to children’s school performance. These
types of activities require real time commitments—time not always available to
a single parent or someone employed full-time. In spite of its appeal,
engagement in school has not been shown to have clear academic benefits. A
parent who does not have the time for attending school may, out of frustration,
not consider more helpful activities that can be undertaken at home. For these
reasons, we must ask if it is prudent to emphasize increased parent-school
connections at this time. While there can certainly be no harm in promoting
parental involvement, and while parents who exhibit one sort of engagement are
likely to practice others, the only answer research provides about the unique
benefits of engagement in school is that the jury is still out.
not universally available, have been highly successful in improving these
situations. At least one program provided books that the children took home
twice a week. Better programs have
proactive components to recruit parents, improve their literacy skills,
overcome obstacles to literacy activities in the home, help parents develop a
regular structure for home-based literacy, and convince parents that their
children can become successful readers. Most research on parental engagement at
home, with the exception of studies of parent-child reading, has involved
students in junior high-school grades. There are good reasons to believe that
the same parental engagement behaviors are important in the younger years.
Psychologists and educators agree on the importance of early years in setting
habits that persevere throughout childhood and beyond. Since early
dysfunctional behavior tends to be sustained and to increase over the years,
the most efficient time to start a child on a positive trajectory is when
he/she is young. Household routines involving school work, and discussions of
school matters, should be initiated when school begins. Involvement with a
child’s homework should occur the first time homework is assigned—often in an
earlier grade than parents expect. The opportunity to stay intensively involved
in school diminishes as students become increasingly independent and as peers come
to have greater influence. At the same time, parents can continue to be
in-school participants by visiting school; attending school events,
performances, and athletics; and initiating contact with teachers and
administrators. It may be surprising that research has not consistently
documented links between in-school engagement and student achievement. Teachers
may pay more attention to students whose parents are involved in the school
which may in turn explain the relationship. Given this research base, it is
natural to ask why there is so much press to increase parent-school
partnerships. Much has been written about different ways in which parents and
schools can work together to facilitate
academic outcomes; basic health and safety responsibilities of parents and
schools; parents volunteering to assist at school and attending school
functions; parental involvement in learning at home, as recommended and
supported by school staff; parental involvement in decision making; and
encouraging parents and schools to become involved in community organizations
that support families and children’s
learning. Parents who are involved in some of these activities tend also to
be involved in others, but not that these activities are related to children’s school performance. These
types of activities require real time commitments—time not always available to
a single parent or someone employed full-time. In spite of its appeal,
engagement in school has not been shown to have clear academic benefits. A
parent who does not have the time for attending school may, out of frustration,
not consider more helpful activities that can be undertaken at home. For these
reasons, we must ask if it is prudent to emphasize increased parent-school
connections at this time. While there can certainly be no harm in promoting
parental involvement, and while parents who exhibit one sort of engagement are
likely to practice others, the only answer research provides about the unique
benefits of engagement in school is that the jury is still out.
Children whose parents are
disengaged have the poorest developmental patterns, lacking psychological
maturity, social competence, and self-esteem. The problems encountered by these
youngsters, in school and out, multiply throughout the school years. The
research reviewed here points to specific attitudes and behaviors which, if
implemented by parents, are associated with improved
academic performance.
disengaged have the poorest developmental patterns, lacking psychological
maturity, social competence, and self-esteem. The problems encountered by these
youngsters, in school and out, multiply throughout the school years. The
research reviewed here points to specific attitudes and behaviors which, if
implemented by parents, are associated with improved
academic performance.
- Providing structure—structuring routines at home,
coordinating with the school when problems arise.
- Active involvement—monitoring the child’s expenditure
of time; teaching and explaining concepts; reviewing homework; providing
support when the child experiences difficulties.
Some authors give guidelines for
parents who wish to increase their support for their children’s academic work,
and many effective programs are available for parents who would like
assistance. Although the research evidence on participation in school is mixed,
the evidence about parental engagement at home is persuasive. Disengagement is
incapacitating. This review did not examine research on home-school
partnerships, but one ingredient should be noted. A component of most programs
is the school’s “outreach” to encourage parental involvement. Schools can
foster the specific behaviors at home shown to promote student performance. This function of parent-school programs, at
least, should be encouraged and should be examined in further empirical
research.
parents who wish to increase their support for their children’s academic work,
and many effective programs are available for parents who would like
assistance. Although the research evidence on participation in school is mixed,
the evidence about parental engagement at home is persuasive. Disengagement is
incapacitating. This review did not examine research on home-school
partnerships, but one ingredient should be noted. A component of most programs
is the school’s “outreach” to encourage parental involvement. Schools can
foster the specific behaviors at home shown to promote student performance. This function of parent-school programs, at
least, should be encouraged and should be examined in further empirical
research.
